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A Master of Laws (M.L. or LL.M.; Latin: Magister Legum or Legum Magister) is a postgraduate academic degree, pursued by those either holding an undergraduate academic law degree, a professional law degree, or an undergraduate degree in a related subject. In some jurisdictions the 'Master of Laws' is the basic professional degree for admission into legal practice.

• 4Requirements
  • 4.16United Kingdom
  • 4.17United States

Background on legal education in common law countries[edit]

To become a lawyer and practice law in most states and countries, a person must first obtain a law degree. While in most common law countries a Bachelor of Laws (or LL.B.) is required, the U.S. and Canada generally require a professional doctorate, or Juris Doctor, to practice law.^[1][2]

The Juris Doctor (J.D.) is a professional doctorate^{[3][4][5][6][7][8]} and first professional^[9][10] graduate degree^[11][12][13] in law. The degree is earned by completing law school in the United States, Canada, Australia, and other common law countries. Many who hold the degree of Juris Doctor are professionals committed to the practice of law, and may choose to focus their practice on criminal law, tort, family law, corporate law, or a wide range of other areas.The majority of individuals holding a J.D. must pass an examination in order to be licensed to practice law within their respective jurisdictions.^{[14][15][16][17]}

If a person wishes to gain specialized knowledge through research in a particular area of law, he or she can continue his or her studies after an LL.B. or J.D. in an LL.M. program. The word legum is the genitive plural form of the Latin word lex and means 'of the laws'. When used in the plural, it signifies a specific body of laws, as opposed to the general collective concept embodied in the word jus, from which the words 'juris' and 'justice' derive. LL.M. is sometimes incorrectly written L.L.M., but Latin abbreviations of plural terms are indicated by doubling the abbreviation of the singular term.^[18]

The highest research degree in law is the Doctor of Juridical Science (S.J.D or J.S.D., depending on the institution), and it is equivalent to the Doctor of Philosophy in Law (Ph.D. or DPhil) or doctorat en droit (in France). The full equivalent in Germany is the Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Dr. iur.) (but German universities require completion of a second doctoral thesis, a Habilitation, to become qualified for teaching as a full professor, but can waive this requirement and usually do so for qualified foreigners). There are also variant doctoral degrees, such as the D.C.L. (Doctor of Civil Law) degree bestowed by McGill University in Canada. Most schools require an LL.M. before admission to an S.J.D. or a Ph.D. in law degree program. Like the Ph.D., the S.J.D. degree generally requires a dissertation that is graded (often by two graders), orally defended (by an exam known as viva voce) and then often published as a book or series of articles. The 'Doctor of Laws' (LL.D.) degree in the United States is usually an honorary degree.

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International situation[edit]

Historically, the LL.M. degree is an element particular to the education system of English speaking countries, which is based on a distinction between Bachelor's and Master's degrees. Over the past years, however, specialized LL.M. programs have been introduced in many European countries, even where the Bologna process has not yet been fully implemented.

Bosnia & Herzegovina, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Cyprus, Italy and Switzerland require a Master's with an additional two to five years to become a lawyer.

As of 2014, Spain requires a master's degree in addition to a 4 years' degree to become a lawyer.

In Finland, an LL.M. is the standard graduate degree required to practice law.^[19] No other qualifications are required.^[20]

To be allowed to practice law in the Netherlands, one needs an LL.M. degree with a specific (set of) course(s) in litigation law. The Dutch Order of Lawyers (NOVA) require these courses for every potential candidate lawyer who wants to be conditionally written in the district court for three years. After receiving all the diplomas prescribed by NOVA and under supervision of a 'patroon' (master), a lawyer is eligible to have his own practice and is unconditionally written in a court for life but he/she will need to continually update his/her knowledge.

Types of LL.M. degrees[edit]

There are a wide range of LL.M. programs available worldwide, allowing students to focus on almost any area of the law. Most universities offer only a small number of LL.M. programs. One of the most popular LL.M. degrees in the United States is tax law, sometimes referred to as an MLT (Master of Laws in Taxation).

Other LL.M. degree programs include bankruptcy law, banking law, commercial law, criminal law, dispute resolution, entertainment and media law, environmental law, estate planning (usually as a sub-specialty of tax law), financial services law, human rights law, information technology law, insurance law, intellectual property law, international law, law and economics, litigation, maritime law, military law, patent law, prosecutorial sciences, real estate law, social care law, telecommunications law, trade law, Trial Advocacy. Some law schools allow LL.M. students to freely design their own program of study from the school's many upper-level courses and seminars, including commercial and corporate, international, constitutional, and human rights law.

In Europe, LL.M. programs in European law are recently very popular, often referred to as LL.M. Eur (Master of European Law). In the Netherlands and its former colonies, the title used was Meester in de Rechten (mr.)

Some LL.M. programs, particularly in the United States, and also in China, focus on teaching foreign lawyers the basic legal principles of the host country (a 'comparative law' degree).

Moreover, some programs are conducted in more than one language, give the students the opportunity to undertake classes in differing languages.

Requirements[edit]

LL.M. programs are usually only open to those students who have first obtained a degree in law, typically an LL.B. or J.D. There are exceptions to this, but an undergraduate degree or extensive experience in a related field is still required. Full-time LL.M. programs usually last one year and vary in their graduation requirements. Most programs require or allow students to write a thesis. Some programs are research oriented with little classroom time (similar to a M.Phil.), while others require students to take a set number of classes (similar to a taught degree or M.Sc.).

LL.M. degrees are often earned by students wishing to develop more concentrated expertise in a particular area of law. Pursuing an LL.M. degree may also allow law students to build a professional network. Some associations provide LL.M. degree holders with structures designed to strengthen their connections among peers and to access a competitive business environment, much like an MBA degree.

Australia[edit]

In Australia, the LL.M. is generally only open to law graduates. However, some universities permit a non-law graduate to undertake variants of the degree.

The shortage of graduate program/articles places has resulted in some LL.B. graduates proceeding directly to an LL.M. course prior to seeking graduate employment.

Unique variants of the LL.M. exist, such as the Master of Legal Practice (M.L.P.) available at the Australian National University, where students who have completed the Graduate Diploma of Legal Practice (which law graduates must obtain before being able to be admitted as a solicitor/barrister), will be granted some credit towards the Master qualification. Other variants of the LL.M. are more similar to the LL.M. available in the wider Commonwealth but under a different title, for example Master of Commercial Law, Master of International Law or Master of Human Rights Law. These courses are usually more specialised than a standard LL.M.

Canada[edit]

In Canada, the LL.M. is generally only open to law graduates holding an LL.B., B.C.L., or a J.D. as a first degree. Students can choose to take research based LL.M. degrees or course based LL.M. degrees. Research based LL.M. degrees are one- or two-year programs that require students to write a thesis that makes a significant contribution to their field of research. Course based LL.M. degrees do not require a significant research paper. An LL.M. can be studied part-time, and at some schools, through distance learning. LL.M. degrees can be general, or students can choose to pursue a specialized area of research.

Canadian law graduates pursue LL.M. degrees because they would like to pursue a career in academia or because they would like to deepen their knowledge in a specific area of the law. Canadian law graduates in most of the provinces in Canada must complete an internship with a law firm (known as 'articling') and a professional legal training course, as well as pass professional exams in order to be called to the bar in a province.^[21]

Foreign trained lawyers who wish to practice in Canada will first need to have their education and experience assessed by the Federation of Law Societies of Canada's National Committee on Accreditation. Upon having received a certificate of accreditation from the National Committee on Accreditation, foreign law graduates would then have to obtain articles with a law firm, take the professional legal training course, and pass the professional exams to be called to the bar in a province.

The University of British Columbia's LLM in Common Law is an example of one of a few LLM courses that help to prepare students for the professional exams.

China (Mainland)[edit]

The LL.M. is available at China University of Political Science and Law, and the entrance requirements are: a native English speaker, or near native English, with any bachelor's degree. The course is flexible and allows students to study Mandarin and assists with organizing work experience in Beijing and other cities in China. It normally takes two years, but can be completed in one and a half years if students take the required credits in time.^[22]

The flagship of the China-EU School of Law (CESL) in Beijing is a Double Master Programme including a Master of Chinese Law and a Master of European and International Law. The Master of European and International Law is taught in English, open for international students and can be studied as a single master programme.^[23] CESL also offers an International Master of Chinese Law (IMCL) which is an LL.M. in Chinese law taught entirely in English.^[24]

Beijing Foreign Studies University has launched an online LLM for international professionals. The course is taken over two years, with the first covering online lessons through video and assignments, the second year is for the dissertation and an online defense is required at the end. Students are required to attend Beijing for an introductory week in September to enroll and meet students and staff. Students also have the opportunity to take work experience at a top five law firm in China.^[25][26]

France[edit]

In France,^[27] the LL.M. is in English language.The LL.M. in International Business Law is available at Panthéon-Assas University (Paris), the oldest school of law in France.

The entrance requirements are:

• Very good English level, with Master's degree in Law (or equivalent); or
• Alternative diploma and four years' professional experience.

The course is flexible and allows students to study French.

Germany[edit]

In Germany, the LL.M. is seen as an advanced legal qualification of supplementary character. As such, Master of Laws programmes are generally open not only to law graduates, but also to graduates of related subjects or those displaying a genuine interest in and link to the particular LL.M. programme in question. Some graduates choose to undertake their LL.M. directly following their 'Erstes Juristisches Staatsexamen' (the 'first state examination' constitutes the first stage of the official German legal training and completes the German undergraduate law degree), an alternative undergraduate course, or their 'Zweites Juristisches Staatsexamen' (that is, the second and final stage of the official German legal training, following which graduates are referred to as 'Volljuristen' who then have access to practice in different branches of the legal profession). On the other hand, many professionals now take career breaks in order to study for an LL.M., in particular for subjects of growing importance or those with constantly changing dynamics, such as European law, economic law or media law for example.

Hong Kong[edit]

LL.M. degree programmes are offered by the law faculties of The University of Hong Kong, the Open University of Hong Kong, The Chinese University of Hong Kong and the City University of Hong Kong. An LL.B. degree is usually required for admission, but for some specialised programmes, such as the LL.M. in Human Rights programme offered by HKU, requires an undergraduate degree in laws or any related discipline.

India[edit]

In India, the thrust of legal education is on the undergraduate law degrees with most of those opting for the undergraduate law degree either going forward to enroll themselves with the Bar Council of India and start practicing as Advocates or giving legal advice without being eligible to appear in courts (a consequence of non-enrollment). Similar to the United Kingdom, a master's degree in Law in India is basically opted to specialize in particular areas of law. Traditionally the most popular areas of specialization in these master's degrees in law in India have been constitutional law, family law and taxation law.

However, with the establishment of the specialized autonomous law schools in India in 1987 (the first was the National Law School of India University) much emphasis is being given at the master's level of legal education in India. With the establishment of these universities, focus in specialization has been shifted to newer areas such as corporate law, intellectual property law, international trade law etc. Master's degree of Law in India was in earlier times of 2 years but at present it is of only 1 year.

Ireland[edit]

A number of universities and colleges in Ireland offer LL.M. Master of Laws programmes, such as Dublin City University, Trinity College Dublin, University College Cork who have an LL.M. e-Law programme, National University of Ireland, Galway (NUIG) who offer an LL.M in Public Law, National University of Ireland, Maynooth (NUIM), who offer an LLM programme and an LLM in International Business Law (this is a dual degree with the Catholic University of Lyon), The Law Society of Ireland in partnership with Northumbria University offer two LLM programmes, and Griffith College in Dublin and Cork who offer LL.M. programmes in International, Commercial and Human Rights Law. Hibernia College offer a completely online LL.M. in International Business Law validated by Birmingham City University.^[28]

Italy[edit]

Italy offers both master programs in Italian and in English, depending on the school. They are often called 'laurea specialistica', that is, the second step of the Bologna plan (European curriculum), and in this case they last two years. For example, the University of Milan offers a 2 years LLM on Sustainable Development. In Alto Adige programs are also taught in German, as in Bolzano.

In Italy the term 'master' often refers to a vocational master, 6 or 12 months long, on specific areas, such as 'law and internet security', or 'law of administrative management', is often taught part-time to allow professionals already working in the field to improve their skills.

Mauritius[edit]

The LLM in International Business Law from Panthéon-Assas University is also available in Mauritius^[27] in Medine Village campus.

Norway[edit]

The Norwegian legal degrees cand.jur. and master i rettsvitenskap are officially translated to English as Master of Laws (LL.M.), as these degrees are more comprehensive than the basic graduate law degree in common law countries (e.g., J.D. and LL.B). The last year in the five year professional Norwegian law degree program is thus considered to correspond to a LL.M specialization.

Pakistan[edit]

In Pakistan, University of the Punjab, University of Karachi, Shaheed Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto University of Law, International Islamic University, Islamabad, Government College University, Faisalabad, University of Sargodha are LL.M. degree awarding institutions.Completing a LL.M. qualification in Pakistan consists of studying eight subjects in four semesters; this spans over a period of two years and also requires the student to write a thesis on a proposed topic. A student has to pass in each of the subject in order to qualify for LL.M. degree, and the passing mark is set at 60%. The programme is taught in English.

Universities in Pakistan teach comparative constitutional law, comparative human rights law and comparative jurisprudence as mandatory subjects. The programmes also include research methodology and four elective subjects, which may include company law, taxation law, intellectual property law and banking law.

Portugal[edit]

The Master of Laws programmes offered in Portugal are extremely varied but haven't, for the most part, adopted the designation LL.M., being more commonly called Mestrado em Direito (Master's Degree in Law), like the ones at Coimbra University's Faculty of Law and Lusíada University of Porto. Albeit the classical Mestrado em Direito takes two years to finish and involves a scientific dissertation, there are some shorter variants. A few Mestrados with an international theme have specifically adopted the LL.M designation: the LL.M in European and Transglobal Business Law at the School of Law of the University of Minho and the LL.M. Law in a European and Global Context and the Advanced LL.M. in International Business Law, both at the Católica Global School of Law, in Lisbon.

Singapore[edit]

In Singapore, the LLM is in English language.The LLM in International Business Law from Panthéon-Assas University is also available in Singapore in Insead campus.

South Africa[edit]

In South Africa, the LL.M. is a postgraduate degree offered both as a course-based, and as a research-based Master's. In the former case, the degree comprises advanced coursework in a specific area of law as well as (limited) related research, usually in the form of a 'short dissertation', while in the latter, the degree is entirely thesis ('dissertation') based. The first type, typically, comprises 'practice-oriented' topics (e.g. in tax, mining law), while the second type is theory-oriented, often preparing students for admission to LL.D. or Ph.D. programmes; see Doctor of law#South Africa. The research Master's essentially reflects an ability to conduct independent research, whereas a Doctoral thesis is, in addition, an original contribution in the field of study.^[29] Admission is generally limited to LL.B. graduates, although holders of other law degrees, such as the BProc, may be able to apply if admitted as attorneys and / or by completing supplementary LL.B. coursework.^[30]

United Kingdom[edit]

In the United Kingdom, an LL.M. programme is open to those holding a recognised legal qualification, generally an undergraduate degree in Laws or a CPE. They do not have to be or intend to be legal practitioners. An LL.M. is not required, nor is it a sufficient qualification in itself to practise as a solicitor or barrister, since this requires completion of the Legal Practice Course, Bar Professional Training Course, or, if in Scotland, the Diploma in Legal Practice but is an opportunity to gain specialist knowledge of a particular area of law or an understanding of the legal systems of other nations. As with other degrees, an LL.M. can be studied on a part-time basis at many institutions and in some circumstances by distance learning. Some providers of the Bar Professional Training Course and the Legal Practice Course also allow the student to gain an LL.M. qualification on top of these professional courses by writing a dissertation.

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Most institutions allow those without a first degree in law onto their LL.M. programme although there are still minimum educational requirements, such as an undergraduate degree, or evidence of substantial professional experience in a related field. Examples of such programmes include the Master of Studies in Legal Research at Oxford, the LL.M. degrees at the University of Edinburgh and LL.M.s at the University of Leicester^[31] In addition, Queen's University Belfast offers an LL.M. suite, accessible to legal and social science graduates, leading to specialisms in sustainable development, corporate governance, devolution or human rights. Northumbria University offers an innovative approach to an LL.M. qualification to students starting the master's programme as undergraduates. Students completing this four-year programme graduate with a combined LL.M. and Legal Practice Course professional qualification or BPTC.

An LL.M course can therefore sometimes be a choice comparable to an MBA or an accountancy degree, acting as a supplementary discipline intended for career enhancement. So, for example, an engineer working extensively with matters such as intellectual property (patents, etc.) may seek broader knowledge and recognition by pursuing an LL.M.

The University of Law (UK) ceased offering its online LL.M. in International Legal Practice to new students who enrolled after July 2015. It currently offers two online LL.M .programmes in Legal Practice (Conflict Resolution) and Legal Practice (Intellectual Property).^[32]

Oxbridge[edit]

The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge have taken slightly different approaches to other British universities to postgraduate legal study, as they have in other areas.^[33]

The University of Cambridge has a taught postgraduate law course, which formerly conferred an LL.B. on successful candidates (undergraduates studying law at Cambridge received a B.A.). In 1982 the LL.B. for postgraduate students was replaced with a more conventional LL.M. to avoid confusion with undergraduate degrees in other universities.^[34] Additionally in 2012 the University of Cambridge introduced the M.C.L. (Masters of Corporate Law) aimed at postgraduate students with interests in corporate law.^[34]

The University of Oxford unconventionally names its taught masters of laws B.C.L. (Bachelor of Civil Law) and M.Jur. (Magister Juris), and its research masters either MPhil (Master of Philosophy) or MSt (Master of Studies).^[35] Oxford continues to name its principal postgraduate law degree the B.C.L. for largely historic reasons, as the B.C.L. is one of the oldest (and therefore within the Oxford hierarchy, most senior) degrees, having been conferred since the sixteenth century.^[36] The M.Jur. was introduced in 1991.^[36] At present there is no LL.M. degree conferred by the University.^[35] Oxford claims that the B.C.L. is 'the most highly regarded taught masters-level qualification in the common law world'.^[37] Additionally in 2010 the University of Oxford introduced the MSc in Law and Finance (MLF). The degree is taught jointly by the Faculty of Law and the Saïd Business School. The MLF programme involves a combination of finance and economic courses combined with BCL law courses.

United States[edit]

In the United States, the acquisition of an LL.M. degree is often a way to specialize in an area of law such as tax law, business law, international business law, health law, trial advocacy, environmental law or intellectual property. A number of schools have combined J.D.-LL.M. programs, while others offer the degree through online study. Some LL.M. programs feature a general study of American law. Degree requirements vary by school, and they often differ for LL.M. students who previously earned a J.D. from an American law school and LL.M. students who previously earned a law degree from a non-American law school.

Programs for foreign legal graduates[edit]

An LL.M. degree from an ABA-approved law school also allows a foreign lawyer to become eligible to apply for admission to the bar (license to practice) in certain states. Each state has different rules relating to the admittance of foreign-educated lawyers to state bar associations.

An LL.M. degree from an ABA-approved law school qualifies a foreign legal graduate to take the bar exam in Alabama, California, New Hampshire, New York, Texas, as well as in the independent republic of Palau.^[38]

In addition, legal practice in the home jurisdiction plus a certain amount of coursework at an accredited law school qualifies a foreign legal graduate to take the bar exam in Alaska, the District of Columbia, Massachusetts, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Tennessee, Utah and West Virginia. However, a number of states, including Arizona, Florida, Georgia, New Jersey and North Carolina only recognize JD degrees from accredited law schools as qualification to take the bar.^[39]

New York allows foreign lawyers from civil law countries to sit for the New York bar exam once they have completed a minimum of 24 credit hours (usually but not necessarily in an LL.M. program) at an ABA-approved law school involving at least two basic subjects tested on the New York bar exam. However, beginning for those who take the bar exam in July 2013, applicants will be required to complete 24 credits of law school coursework, including 12 credits in specific areas of law.^[40] Lawyers from common-law countries face more lenient restrictions and may not need to study at an ABA-approved law school. Foreign lawyers from both civil law and common law jurisdictions, however, are required to demonstrate that they have successfully completed a course of law studies of at least three years that would fulfill the educational requirements to bar admission in their home country.^[41]

International law and other LL.M. programs[edit]

As of 2008, there is one LL.M. degree in International Law offered by The Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy at Tufts University, the oldest school of international affairs in the United States. Given that the degree specializes in international law, and is not teaching a first degree in U.S. law (the J.D. degree), the program has not sought ABA accreditation.

The Notre Dame Law School at the University of Notre Dame offers an LL.M in International Human Rights Law to JD graduates from ABA-accredited US schools or LL.B or equivalent from accredited non-US schools.^[42]

Both Duke University School of Law and Cornell Law School offer J.D. students the opportunity to simultaneously pursue an LL.M. in International and Comparative Law.

The University of Nebraska-Lincoln College of Law provides an LL.M. in Space, Cyber & Telecommunications Law, the only program providing focused study in these three areas. The program was established using a grant from NASA and a partnership with the U.S. Air Force Strategic Command.

St. Mary’s University offers the LL.M. in International and Comparative Law, with students having the option to complete both it and their J.D. simultaneously.

The University of Tulsa College of Law offers an LL.M. in American Indian and Indigenous Peoples Law to JD graduates from ABA-accredited US schools or LL.B or equivalent from accredited non-US schools.^[43]

There is one institution that offers an ABA-approved LL.M, that does not offer the first degree in law (the J.D. degree): The U.S. Army Judge Advocate General's Legal Center and School offers an officer's resident graduate course, a specialized program beyond the first degree in law, leading to an LL.M. in Military Law, with concentrations in Administrative and Civil Law, Government Contract and Fiscal Law, Criminal Law, and Operational and International Law.^[44][45]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

1. ^'Do You Have to Have a J.D. to Be an Attorney?'.
2. ^'So, You Want to Become a Lawyer - University of Toronto Faculty of Law'. www.law.utoronto.ca.
3. ^Association of American Universities Data Exchange. 'Glossary of Terms for Graduate Education'. Retrieved 1 September 2010.
4. ^National Science Foundation (2006). 'Time to Degree of U.S. Research Doctorate Recipients'. InfoBrief, Science Resource Statistics. NSF. 06-312: 7. Archived from the original(PDF) on 8 March 2016. Under 'Data notes' this article mentions that the J.D. is a professional doctorate.
5. ^San Diego County Bar Association (1969). 'Ethics Opinion 1969-5'. Retrieved 26 May 2008.. Under 'other references' differences between academic and professional doctorates, and contains a statement that the J.D. is a professional doctorate
6. ^University of Utah (2006). 'University of Utah – The Graduate School – Graduate Handbook'. Archived from the original on 26 June 2008. Retrieved 28 May 2008.
7. ^German Federal Ministry of Education. 'U.S. Higher Education / Evaluation of the Almanac Chronicle of Higher Education'(PDF). Archived from the original(PDF) on 13 April 2008. Retrieved 26 May 2008. Report by the German Federal Ministry of Education analysing the Chronicle of Higher Education from the U.S. and stating that the J.D. is a professional doctorate.
8. ^Encyclopædia Britannica. 3. 2002. p. 962:1a.
9. ^U.S. Department of Education (2008). 'USNEI-Structure of U.S. Education - Graduate/Post Education Levels'. Archived from the original on 14 December 2007. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
10. ^College Blue Book (1999). Degrees Offered by College and Subject. New York: MacMillan. p. 817.
11. ^University of California, Berkeley. 'General Catalog – Graduate Education – Graduate Degrees and Certificates'. Archived from the original on 21 May 2008. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
12. ^University of Southern California (1995). 'Undergraduate and Graduate Degree Programs'. Archived from the original on 22 April 2008. Retrieved 25 May 2008.
13. ^University of Melbourne. 'About Use - The Melbourne JD'. Retrieved 26 May 2008.
14. ^'North Carolina Board of Law Examiners'.
15. ^itembridge.com. 'VBBE - Welcome'. barexam.virginia.gov.
16. ^'Archived copy'. Archived from the original on 14 September 2010. Retrieved 24 September 2010.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
17. ^'BOLE- OFFICIAL PAGE NEW YORK STATE BAR EXAMINATION'. www.nybarexam.org.
18. ^What is an LL.M.?
19. ^Government Decree on University Degrees (794/2004) section 31. Candidate of Laws was the pre-Bologna name for the graduate degree. [1]
20. ^'Code of Judicial Procedure (4/1734) chapter 15 section 2'(PDF).
21. ^'Articling'.
22. ^'CUPL - China University of Political Science and Law'. Lawschoolchina.com. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
23. ^'China-EU School of Law, CUPL'. Cesl.edu.cn. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
24. ^'International Master of Chinese Law'. China-EU School of Law. Retrieved 3 April 2019.
25. ^'Online Chinese Law Programs'. Beijing Foreign Studies University.
26. ^'Beijing Foreign Studies University Announces Online LL.M. Programs'. Llm Guide. 22 June 2012. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
27. ^ ^ab'Sorbonne Assas – International Law School – High-level LL.M. in International Business Law'.
28. ^Hibernia moves to meet the demand for teachers by Margaret O'Brien, Sunday Business Post, 4 September 2011.
29. ^'This website was recently revamped'(PDF). www.unisa.ac.za.
30. ^'This website was recently revamped'(PDF). www.unisa.ac.za.
31. ^University of Leicester.
32. ^'LLM Online Masters Degree in Law'. www.law.ac.uk. Retrieved 26 February 2017.
33. ^See generally: Master of Arts (Oxbridge and Dublin).
34. ^ ^ab'Posgraduate Law'. University of Cambridge, Faculty of Law. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
35. ^ ^ab'Postgraduate Study'. University of Oxford. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
36. ^ ^ab'BCL/MJUR Profile, Class of 2013/2014'. University of Oxford, Faculty of Law. Retrieved 13 August 2015.
37. ^. University of Oxford, Faculty of Law https://web.archive.org/web/20150822211703/http://www.law.ox.ac.uk/postgraduate/ebrochure/oxford_bcl_15-16.html. Archived from the original on 22 August 2015. Retrieved 13 August 2015.Missing or empty title= (help)
38. ^Scott. 'Foreign Lawyers Can Now Practice in Texas - JDJournal'.
39. ^'Archived copy'(PDF). Archived from the original on 31 March 2010. Retrieved 31 July 2010.CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link) CS1 maint: BOT: original-url status unknown (link)
40. ^22 NYCRR §520.6(b)(3)(vi)http://www.nybarexam.org/Rules/Rules.htm#520.6
41. ^'New York Court of Appeals Rules of Practice § 520.6'. Archived from the original on 11 April 2010. Retrieved 1 April 2010.
42. ^'Notre Dame LL.M. in International Human Rights Law Program'. Retrieved 8 May 2014.
43. ^'Master of Laws (LLM)'. University of Tulsa. Retrieved 26 February 2016.
44. ^'ABA-Approved Law Schools Section of Legal Education and Admissions to the Bar'. Abanet.org. Retrieved 8 December 2012.
45. ^'Graduate Course (LL.M. Program)'. Jagcnet.army.mil. Retrieved 8 December 2012.

External links[edit]

The Law of Ueki (うえきの法則Ueki no Hōsoku) is a Japanese manga series written and illustrated by Tsubasa Fukuchi. It was serialized in Weekly Shōnen Sunday from August 2001 to October 2004. Sixteen tankōbon volumes were compiled and published by Shogakukan. An anime adaptation was first broadcast on TV Tokyo on April 4, 2005, and ended with 51 episodes on March 27, 2006. In Indonesia, this anime Originally Broadcast by Lativi (now tvOne) since year 2007 and Global TV since year 2008. It was produced by Studio Deen. A manga sequel, The Law of Ueki Plus (うえきの法則プラスUeki no Hōsoku PURASU), was serialized in Weekly Shōnen Sunday from April 2005 to July 2007.

The manga was licensed for distribution in North America by Viz Media,^[2] while the anime adaptation was licensed by Geneon.^[3] On July 3, 2008, Geneon and Funimation announced an agreement to distribute select titles in North America. While Geneon would still retain the license, Funimation would assume exclusive rights to the manufacturing, marketing, sales and distribution of select titles. The Law of Ueki was one of several titles involved in the deal.^[4] The rights to the series expired in 2011.^[5]ImaginAsian TV broadcast the anime series to the American audience on its Anime EnerG block, starting on January 30, 2007.^[6] The anime has been license rescued by Discotek Media in 2018.^[7]

• 1Plot
• 3Sacred weapons
• 7Media
  • 7.2Anime

Plot[edit]

The story starts out with the Battle of the Supernatural Powers, a tournament to decide who will be the next god of The Celestial World (rendered as God Candidates in the Animax version^[8] and Kami (天界人) in the Japanese version).

Each candidate (100 in total) is required to choose a junior high school student to act as their fighter. The student is given a unique power and told to eliminate as many enemies as possible. The winning God Candidate will become The New God of Heaven and the winning student will receive the Blank Zai (or talent), a talent that can be anything they choose.

While this leads many students to thoughts of greed and selfishness, Kosuke Ueki decides to take it upon himself to win this tournament to keep that power away from those that would abuse such a gift.

The Law of Ueki Plus[edit]

Two years after the tournament in The Law of Ueki, Kosuke Ueki is now a 3rd year student in Hinokuni Junior High School. For some reason, everyone in the real world has lost their memory of their most important person, including his friends who participated in the tournament two years ago. Ueki is the only one unaffected, and is fighting in order to restore everyone's memories. He follows a little sheep named U-lu (wool in English) to another world called Hangekai where he meets new companions and gains new abilities.

Tournament[edit]

Initially, fights in the tournament consist of a battle between two power users - one wins by knocking the other opponent out.

When a knock-out is obtained, the loser will lose their power and the winner will gain a talent Zai (才), which is a talent of some sort (e.g. 'talent of running,' 'talent of studying,' and so on). A power user who has lost a fight is disqualified and their power is labeled 'retired.'

The rules for the combatants of the tournament revolve around the talents:

• Power users are not allowed to use their powers against non-power users, or they lose one talent for each hit.
• If the power user loses all of his/her talents, then he/she will disappear.
• Every time a power user knocks out another power user, he/she will gain another talent, senseless or not.
• If, for any reason, both contestants become unconscious at the same time, the round is a draw: no talents will be gained, and no powers are lost. The contestants must be knocked out within 5 seconds of each other, or the last contestant wins.

There are also rules which apply to the Celestial World Candidates, also known as God Candidates. The punishment for breaking them is that the candidate is sent to Hell.

• Candidates are not allowed to interfere with their power user's fight. This means that they are not allowed to provide their power users with more supplies to use their power (this may only apply to during a fight), or even save them from dying.
• Candidates are only allowed to grant a power to one individual. However, it is possible for two candidates to give a power each to one person; if found out, though, it will lead to a disqualification of both candidates.
• Candidates cannot harm any non-power users, the same rule apply on power users.

Near the end of the tournament, power users are allowed to form groups of five for 'battle royale'-style fighting. Knock-outs during this stage do not result in losing powers. Each team is given a penalty if it loses, such as having all of the members die or losing their hair in addition to losing their powers.

To decide who receives the Blank Talent among the winning team, a device is used to measure the growth in power that each participant has shown from the beginning to the end of the tournament. To decide who is to become King of the Celestial World, the winning team votes which of the candidates should be given that honor.

Sacred weapons[edit]

All heavenly beings, or Celestials, have the potential to master a total of ten attacks which correspond with different levels of their growth. These attacks are called Jingi, or 'sacred treasures'. Higher level sacred treasures have a higher damage capability than lower ones. If a heavenly being is a power-user (having received a power from a God Candidate), their power is merged with their sacred treasures, becoming Neo-Celestials. In the case of Ueki, he manifests these abilities through his talent of tree growth. A heavenly being's sacred treasures with no special powers will take the form of stone. In the Battle Game, there are only six heavenly beings: Ueki, Robert, Kilnorton, Diegostar, Balo and Ban Dicoot, but only Ueki and Robert are level 2 power users.

List of sacred treasures[edit]

Kurogane

The 1-star sacred treasure, gained through consciousness/realization of the fact that the user is a heavenly being. It is a large cannon grown out from the user's arm that fires a large ball at the opponent. For Ueki, a large cannon grows out from a tree and fires a large ball of wooden strands at the opponent. It is first seen in the first intro of the show when Robert Hayden as a child is pointing it at the sky. The first time it is used is in the battle between Ueki and Alessio Iuliano

Hood (Fudou)

The 2-star sacred treasure, gained through perseverance. It is a giant arm shield grown out of the ground to protect the user from attacks, but it can also be used offensively by striking at enemies. It is first seen when Ueki was defending himself from Tenko.

Ranma

The 3-star sacred treasure gained through firmness. The user must master 'A heart that never wavers no matter what' (Fuwaku). Ranma is a gigantic sword grown from the arm of the user. Ueki's Ranma grows out from a tree to strike the opponent. It is first seen in the battle where Ueki uses it to retire Oni. The shape of the blade is controlled by the user(like Margarette).

Mash (Mashu)

The 4-star sacred treasure, gained through body and strength. Mash is a cube-like big mouth that chomps the opponent. It can jump out of the ground towards the opponent. Ueki's Masshu is a big mouth with tree legs that comes from the ground to chomp the opponent. It is first seen in the second battle between Ueki and Don. Masshu can be used to defend against attacks as well by chomping on Kurogane, Ranma and Pick. Notably, Robert can make his Masshu travel along the ground, and make it turn red or blue to make the opponent drawn to or pushed away from the ground, which was seen when he was battling Ueki in the Dogura Mansion

Pick (Ressen)

The 5-star sacred treasure gained through centralization. Pick is a large column that quickly shoots out from the arm of the user towards the opponent. It can be pointed downwards to propel the user upwards or it can be detached from the arm and used as a ramp. Ueki's Pick grows from a tree and has yellow and black stripes. Each heavenly beings' Pick are made from differing matter and have different markings on them, but Robert Haydn's pick is the shape of a corkscrew and Balo's pick is also pointed at the end. Pick is first seen in the battle between Ueki and Yunpao in the Dogura Mansion.

Raika

The 6-star sacred treasure, gained through anticipation. Raika is a pair of rollerblade-like attachments on the user's feet allowing them rapid movement on the ground but the user is unable to jump. It is first seen in the battle between Ueki and Carl Pacchio.

Gulliver (Galiper)

The 7-star sacred treasure, gained through speed. A grid of light appears on the ground, followed by a boxed wall that shoots up from anywhere on the grid to capture the opponent. Any attempts to attack while inside the box are futile and can be directed back at the captured. The opponent only has half a second to avoid imprisonment. It is first seen in the battle between Ueki and Caption (Though there is speculation that it was first shown when Robert encased Ueki in a special transparent room during Mori and Kabara's fight that meet Gulliver's effects).

Namihana

The 8-star sacred treasure, gained through capturing. The appearance is that of a massive whip. It is a highly flexible weapon which can be turned in any direction desired by the user. It is first seen in the match between Ueki and Guitar.

Seiku

The 9-star sacred treasure of flight, gained through balance. A pair of wings will appear on the user's back, granting them flying capabilities. It is first seen in the second opening theme of the series, although it was first used in a fight between Ueki and Anon. The color of the wings varies from user to user.

Archenemy (Maoh)

Known as archenemy in the manga. The 10-star sacred treasure, gained through will. Summons a creature that varies from heavenly being to heavenly being. Maoh is a formless weapon. The power of the summon is based on the will of the fighter, which in Ueki's case was to protect his friends. Ueki's Maoh takes the form of Kobayashi and is relatively weak compared to Anon's Maoh due to his low will power. But due to an increase in Ueki's wishes to save his friends, his Maoh's strength increased and he gained control over it.

Robert's Archenemy is an extremely monstrous black skeletal ram and is the embodiment of his hatred for humanity. It is used by Anon after he absorbs Robert. Maoh can only be used only four times in a lifetime. First mentioned in the ending scenes of the battle between Robert Haydn and Ueki. First appearance in the battle between God and Margarette, although it was attempted by Robert in the Dogura Mansion where he was prevented by Kobasen along with the ending of round 1.

This level is attained only by Robert Haydn, Kosuke Ueki, God, and Margarette (Robert's God Candidate).

Super Sacred Weapon -Creation (Demi-Weapon - Dentso)

The unknown sacred treasure that changes the geography of any place. Only God has this power, but since Anon can absorb powers from whom he devours, he wields it and creates the pathway, where the last battle takes place.

Talents[edit]

Every middle school student has talents that help them in battle or in life. An important rule in the tournament to prevent power users from attacking anyone they please is that the power user will lose a talent if they attack a non-power user, but they can gain a random talent by knocking out another power user. If the power user loses all their talents, they will vanish.

Ueki starts the series with eleven talents: Girl charisma, ability to study, ability to run, accuracy, ability to eat fast, ability to search, lottery, animal charisma, ability to swim, ability to dodge, and the ability to imitate. However, those soon begin to dwindle down because of his desire to protect innocent civilians with his powers, a source of endless frustration to Mori.

'The Talent of Blank Zai'[edit]

The talent of blank zai is a reward of winning the battle that allows the winner to write any talent they desire down and instantly become the best in existence with this talent, no matter what it is.

Symbolism[edit]

Robert Haydn's name and personality is a reference to the African American poet Robert Hayden (1913–1980). His entire childhood was fraught with traumatic events and parental abuse. One of his more famous poems 'The Whipping' was about a child who was being beaten by his grandmother, with underlying symbolism of slavery.

Media[edit]

Manga[edit]

The Law of Ueki is written and illustrated by Tsubasa Fukuchi. It was serialized in Shogakukan's Weekly Shōnen Sunday from August 8, 2001 to October 27, 2004.^[9][10] Sixteen tankōbon volumes were compiled and published by Shogakukan, with the first volume published on December 18, 2001,^[11] and the last on January 14, 2005.^[12]

A manga sequel, The Law of Ueki Plus, was serialized in Weekly Shōnen Sunday from April 20, 2005 to July 4, 2007,^[13] and compiled in five tankōbon volumes released from August 8, 2005^[14] to September 18, 2007.^[15]

Anime[edit]

Theme songs[edit]

Opening themes

• Falco by Hitomi Shimatani (Episodes 1-32)
  • Lyricist: BOUNCEBACK
  • Composer: Kazunori Watanabe (渡辺和則Watanabe Kazunori)
  • Arranged by: Yasuaki Maejima (前島泰明Maejima Yasuaki)
• No Regret by Kumi Koda (Episodes 33-51)
  • Lyricist: Tōru Watanabe (渡辺徹Watanabe Tōru)
  • Composer and arranger: h-wonder

Ending themes

• Kokoro no Wakusei ~Little planets~ (こころの惑星〜Little planets〜) by Aiko Kayo (Episodes 1-15)
  • Lyricist: Kenn Kato
  • Composer: Kei Suzuki (鈴木計Suzuki Kei)
  • Arranged by: Keiichiro Nomura (野村敬一郎Nomura Keiichirō) and Kei Suzuki
  • Chorus arranged by: Yas Kitajima (北島安Kitajima Yasu)
• Earthship 〜Uchūsen Chikyūgō〜 (Earthship 〜宇宙船地球号〜) by SweetS (Episodes 16-32)
  • Lyricist: rom△ntic high
  • Composer and arranger: Greenwich Fields
• Kono Machi de wa Dare Mo ga Mina Jibun Igai no Nani Ka ni Narita garu (この街では誰もがみな自分以外の何かになりたがる) by The Ivory Brothers (Episodes 33-42)
• Bokutachi ni Aru Mono (ボクたちにあるもの) by Romi Park (Episodes 43-50)
• True Blue by Hitomi Shimatani (Episode 51)

Video games[edit]

The Law of Ueki was also adapted into a PlayStation 2 and Game Boy Advance game released only in Japan. The PlayStation 2 game is called Ueki no Hōsoku: Taosu ze Roberuto Jūdan!! (うえきの法則: 倒ぜロベルト十団!) while the Game Boy Advance game is called Ueki no Hōsoku: Jingi Sakuretsu! Nōryokusha Battle (うえきの法則: 神器炸裂!能力者バトル). They are based on the story of the anime.

Reception[edit]

The Law Of Ueki Characters

References in other media[edit]

Tengen Toppa Gurren Lagann

Ueki appeared briefly in the episode Saving Face of Kappa Mikey as a portrait in the background of Dr. Takashi Katashi's office. He also appeared in background and crowded scenes of the show.

References[edit]

1. ^'The Official Website for The Law of Ueki'. Viz Media. Retrieved October 29, 2017.
2. ^Macdonald, Christopher (November 25, 2005). 'New Viz Titles'. Anime News Network. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
3. ^Macdonald, Christopher (June 22, 2005). 'Geneon Licenses The Law of Ueki'. Anime News Network. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
4. ^'FUNimation Entertainment and Geneon Entertainment Sign Exclusive Distribution Agreement for North America'. Anime News Network (Press release). July 3, 2008. Retrieved July 3, 2008.
5. ^Osmond, Andrew (August 17, 2011). 'Funimation Confirms Some Geneon Licenses Have Expired'. Anime News Network. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
6. ^'ImaginAsian TV Launches New Anime Block'. Anime News Network. October 26, 2006. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
7. ^'Discotek Licenses Devilman, Angel Cop, Cat Girl Nuku Nuku, Law of Ueki, Cardcaptor Sakura: The Sealed Card'. Anime News Network. Retrieved May 27, 2018.
8. ^'The Law of Ueki.' Animax India. March 15, 2007. Retrieved on July 23, 2009.
9. ^週刊少年サンデー　2001/08/08　表示号数34 (in Japanese). Agency for Cultural Affairs. Retrieved March 12, 2019.
10. ^週刊少年サンデー　2004/10/27　表示号数46 (in Japanese). Agency for Cultural Affairs. Retrieved March 12, 2019.
11. ^うえきの法則 1 (in Japanese). Shogakukan. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
12. ^うえきの法則 16 (in Japanese). Shogakukan. Retrieved March 13, 2019.
13. ^週刊少年サンデー　うえきの法則＋(福地翼) (in Japanese). Agency for Cultural Affairs. Retrieved March 12, 2019.
14. ^うえきの法則プラス 1 (in Japanese). Shogakukan. Retrieved March 12, 2019.
15. ^うえきの法則プラス 5 (in Japanese). Shogakukan. Retrieved March 12, 2019.
16. ^Santos, Carlo (May 25, 2006). 'The Law of Ueki DVD 1: The Battle Commencement'. Anime News Network.
17. ^Beveridge, Chris (March 29, 2006). 'Law of Ueki Vol. #01 (of 13)'. Anime On DVD. Archived from the original on April 21, 2008.Law of Ueki Vol. #01 @ Mania.com at the Wayback Machine (archived September 23, 2012)

Video The Law Of Ueki Plus Sub Indo Entertainers

External links[edit]

The Law Of Ueki Wiki

• Web Sunday on Law of Ueki Plus(in Japanese)
• Avex Mode on The Law of Ueki(in Japanese)
• TV Tokyo on The Law of Ueki(in Japanese)
• Geneon's The Law of Ueki page (Archived)
• The Law of Ueki (manga) at Anime News Network's encyclopedia

The Law Of Ueki